Uglogical

The vertebrae are the first bones encountered beyond the skull areas.  The first vertebrae is the atlas, so named because it must bear the skull.  The second bone is the axis , the pivot point which allows free movement of the head and neck areas.  The hyoid apparatus in the throatal areas , roughly behind an in front of these first vertebrae, or it may be a free unit – free standing so to speak.   It protects the windpipe.

The body of the vertebrae is called a “centrum ;  the space between centra is the  intercentrum.  The vertebral centra may be one of two types , either amphicouelous ( biconcave) or procoelus ( concave anterior , convex posterior).  The backbone runs the entire length of the tail, but should this member be lost. the replacement will forever be devoid of true vertebrae.  Along the rail section , when true vertebrae are present. one can locate the plane of autonomy, which is usually a cartilaginous plate before or behind the transverse process of the vertebra.

The forelimbs are supported from the pectoral girdle.  The humerus bone articulates at a point between the sternum and interscapula.  Similarly the femur fits into an opening of the ischium.  At the lowest point of the pectoral girdle is the sternum ,  a bone which protects a good part of the internal organs.  Between the sternum and the pelvis may be a bony or cartilaginous union of the ribs, known as the parasternum.  Extending from beneath the scapula  and uniting with the sternum is the clavicle , a bone always present in pairs.

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