Very few salamanders other than those from tropical and subtropical areas will require supplementary heating other than that provided by the normal room temperatures of the average household. As tropical species also require a high humidity, it is best to install apparatus that will provide both warmth and moist air.
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This not only prevents the inmates from escaping (some salamanders are extremely adept at crawling up a sheer glass surface because the slimy body secretions can produce suction), it forms a housing for the lighting system (and heating system if it is required) and provides ventilation. A terrarium lid may be made from plastic (common in purchased terraria) but also could be fashioned from plywood given a couple of coats of non-toxic gloss paint to render it damp-proof. A couple of large holes are made in the top of the lid and covered with a fine gauge mesh. The lid should be at least 15 cm (6 in) deep to allow for the lighting apparatus.
The aqua-terrarium is one that contains roughly equal land and water areas. Such containers are suitable for those salamanders that spend equal amounts of time on the land and in the water or those that spend the breeding season in an aquatic environment. An ordinary aquarium tank can be used. A partition of glass some 15 cm (6 in) high can be placed across the bottom of the tank and sealed into place to form a watertight barrier between the land and swimming areas. The substrate of the water area can be about 2.5 cm (1 in) deep, thus leaving a water depth of about 12.5 cm (5 in). A rock gradient can be placed up the side of the glass partition to allow easy access and egress of the inmates. The land area is filled to about half with pebbles and coarse gravel to provide drainage. If possible, drainage holes should be made in the base of the land area to prevent excessive waterlogging. A mixture of garden loam, peat, and clean sand can be placed over the pebbles to bring the land up to water level. These materials should be sterilized to reduce the possibility of souring and molding. A slab grassy turf can be placed over the whole land area (this can be changed at regular intervals) or green moss clumps can be used. For extra decoration a couple of dwarf potted plants can be sunk into the substrate, and mossy bark, stone caves, or pieces of broken clay flowerpots can be used to provide shelters for the inmates.
For those with greater ambition, a more natural aqua-terrarium can be made by using a very large tank and building up a rockery at the rear. The tank can be situated in an alcove in the house or conservatory. In such cases, the whole of the aquarium the aqua-terrarium, but free water is not strictly necessary for the welfare of the inmates. However, high humidity is essential and regular misting (with a plant sprayer) must be carried out. For safety’s sake, it is advisable to have a small dish of water available at all times.
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Usually with the smaller ones at the front and graduating to taller specimens at the rear and ends. Larger salamanders can be quite violent with their surroundings and will continually uproot weak plants, so only robust specimens should be used, these being allowed to establish strong root systems before any animals are introduced. Such aquaria are suitable for rearing the larvae of many species of salamanders and newts as well as for permanently keeping those forms that are totally aquatic.
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The Komodo “dragon,” named for the East Indian island where it was first found, is the largest living lizard. A voracious and undiscriminating carnivore, it will eat any kind of carrion, as well as living animals. Lethargic when it has fed, this monitor lizard shows surprising spurts of speed when hungry, and uses its long, strong tail with lethal dexterity.
Its fangs are too small to get a grip on a human. You can dig up a scarlet snake a foot underground, or chase a coach-whip over many acres, or see a slender twig on a bush turn into the air-thin grace of Opheodrys, the rough green snake. Most of the typical snakes on the place lay eggs, but some bear their young alive. Some eat any living prey they can catch and swallow, but the hog-nosed snakes lean heavily on toads for food, the king snake eats other snakes, and the red-bellied, shiny horn snake in the pond eats mostly salamanders.
The remaining snakes of the farm and of the world constitute two groups among which the production and injection of venom have become highly refined adaptations. These are the vipers and the cobras, the latter group including the coral snakes and sea snakes. The cobras and their relatives (family Elapidae) are found around the world in tropical regions. They kill prey by venom injected through fixed hollowed or grooved fangs located toward the front of the upper jaw. They are generally slender as compared with vipers, and except for one Australian species their heads are not markedly broadened or heart-shaped. Some of them, like the mambas of Africa, are big, swift, obstreperous and even warlike. Others are timid burrowers or foragers in leaf mold, like most of the American coral snakes. The king cobra of India with its frightening hood reaches a top length of about 18 feet, but some of the burrowing elapids may be only a few inches long, with a gape of mouth too narrow for biting people. In Australia, the cobralike snakes by far outnumber the typical snakes. There is a fantastic variety of species there, including such creatures as the dreaded tiger snake, the death adder and the 12-foot taipan, perhaps the most aggressive snake in the world.
The poisonous snakes with the most elaborate venom-injection apparatus are the vipers (family Viperidae). They are found on all the continents except Australia; in fact, most poisonous snakes temperate regions are vipers. There are two well-marked groups of them: the true vipers (subfamily Viperinae), confined to the Old World; and the pit vipers (subfamily Crotalinae), which have both American and Asiatic members but are mainly concentrated in the New World. Most vipers are stout-bodied snakes with the wedge-shaped or heart-shaped head generally thought of as the mark of a poisonous snake. The pit vipers include such imposing animals as the rattlesnakes and the tropical American fer-de-lance and bushmaster. Their name is derived from a sensory depression, or pit, in the side of the snout between the eye and the nostril. This is elaborately supplied with nerves and blood vessels and is an organ specialized for detecting the presence and range of warm objects. Most pit vipers eat warm-blooded prey, and the pit is no doubt used primarily in feeding, but like the rattle of the rattlesnake it is perhaps also of value as a means of avoiding injury under the hoofs of big mammals.
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Related Websites Most of the synapomorphies of the leg that appear in Ornithosuchus, advance in Lagosuchus, and come to full development in the dinosaurs are concerned with the acquisition of an erect gait – or the fully upright posture. It is important to note that erect or upright gait does not necessarily mean bipedal. Cows and horses have the erect gait and posture, just as much as humans do.
The first archosaurs were sprawlers, like modern lizards and salamanders. The limbs stuck out sideways from the body, and the elbows and knees form right angles at all times as the animal walks. Even at speed, a lizard generally swings its limbs far out to the side of its body, and it is assumed that the Early Triassic archosaurs moved in a similar way. During the Middle Triassic, most archosaurs adopted a semi-erect posture in which the body could be lifted clear of the ground, with the arms and legs tucked partly underneath for rapid locomotion. Finally, in the Middle and Late Triassic, the two archosaur lineages noted above – the crocodilian and dinosaur lines – adopted an erect posture in which the limbs were tucked underneath the body at all times. This seems to have happened independently in each line.
The aetosaurs, rauisuchians and early crocodilians evolved an erect posture in which the acetabula shifted beneath the hip bones and the heads of the femurs fitted straight up into them, like straight columns beneath a building. The members of the dinosaur line used the approach seen in mammals, in which the acetabula remain on the side of the hip bones but the femurs develop right-angled heads that fit in from the sides. In this design the relationship of hip girdle and leg is more like a buttress on the side of a church building, rather than a column beneath its roof, but the result is the same. The legs of dinosaurs, and of mammals, come together in a slightly knock-kneed fashion beneath the body, and this is a crucial feature.
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