But even an egg with a shell is delicate. It can incubate successfully only within a narrow range of conditions of temperature, humidity and concealment. It is thus not surprising to find that a few reptiles have independently hit upon the recourse that we think of as one of the main attributes of the mammals – that of producing living young. All the live-bearing reptiles of modern times are lizards and snakes.

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Because the genitalia of male reptiles are internal, it is not always easy to tell the sexes apart. It takes a real expert, for instance, to determine the sex of a snapping turtle or alligator. However, in most species there are certain external features by which it is possible to distinguish the sexes of fully mature individuals. The two most obvious ones are size and coloration. There is no set rule about which sex may be the larger, but in many species it is the male that is bigger than the female. Where difference in color patterns exist, it is generally the male which has the more vivid coloration, as is usual in birds; but here again the situation is sometimes reversed. In some species the sexual coloration is a sort of nuptial dress, assumed for breeding and later abandoned.

Internal fertilization is a cooperative process, and to bring it about the sexes must find each other, and must be physiologically prepared for mating. Most if not all reptiles show some sort of courtship behavior by which the sex of a potential partner is determined, the coyness of the female is overcome, and a readiness to mate is generated in both members of the pair. Courtship often duplicates or blends with the expressions of rivalry and home defense between males, and since this whole complex of innate behavior is a hereditary part of the make-up of a species, it affords an interesting field for study.

The courtship of a number of different snakes and lizards is a case in point. Although there are clear similarities in behavior patterns among the two groups, it has been found that most lizards recognize the female visually, while snakes depend on odor, trailing the female with their noses as well as with the tongue and Jacobson’s organ. Male lizards put on quite a display among themselves – showing colored throat fans, erecting crests, arching their necks and affecting various gaits – but how much of this actually carries over into courtship is not surely known. Some of it, however, is brought to bear by the male on a prospective partner. When the female is thoroughly recognized as a female and her reticence overcome, the male lizard (like the males of some snakes) seizes her with his jaw, bends the base of his tail downward to maneuver the cloacal openings into contact, and insertion of one of the hemipenes is affected.

Turtles both aquatic terrapins and land tortoises, carry out varyingly elaborate courtships which may include butting and nipping of the female by the male, or his swimming backward in front of her, fluttering his claws beside her face, or stroking her cheeks with his elongate fingernails. Among some species of pond turtles and among sea turtles, courtship is accompanied by competitive behavior among males.

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The process, of course, was not quite that flowing and easily traced. There is a good deal of controversy among experts about the order in which the separate innovations appeared and what immediate selective advantage was gained in each case. One fact is clear, however. Of all the adaptations that fitted the vertebrates into their increasingly refined roles on land, none was more fundamental than the reptilian egg.

Most people, thinking of an egg, think of a bird; but they are being led astray by seeing eggs mainly at breakfast. The birds did not invent the shelled egg, they inherited it, and it has undergone no important evolution in their possession. The first shelled land eggs were reptilian, and the reptiles were reptiles only when they had evolved such an egg. The old riddle, “which came first, the hen or the egg,” is just whimsey when the hen is a bird. But applied to reptiles the question is valid, and paleontologists are still getting testy with each other trying to answer it.

The reptiles came from amphibian ancestors. The egg of the usual amphibian is almost naked, enclosed only by a jelly envelope. The jelly supports each egg separately in the mass, keeps out small invaders and discourages predation by larger animals, but it gives almost no protection against drying up. A typical frog egg on land on a clear day will quickly wither. Thus, no matter how far the adult frog may be able to move from water in the course of its own daily activities, when it comes time to provide new frogs most species have to go home to the water. The sons of male frogs all over the world calling the females to the ponds show how strong the obligation is.

The egg as the reptiles developed it – which was essentially as we know it today – had no such limitation. Its smooth shell tightly shut in white and yolk. Like any egg, as it incubated it got more complex inside, and the complexity was not just in the forming body of the new animal but also in the structures required to keep the embryo alive in its shell – to keep it supported, fed, unpoisoned and unasphyxiated.

The structures that did this are known as the embryonic membranes. They were evolved by the reptiles and kept by the birds; and, with modifications, they also serve as embryonic structures of the mammals. Because they occur both in the shelled egg and in the uterine development of the mammal, all three higher vertebrate classes – mammals, reptiles and birds – are collectively called amniotes. The name refers to one of the embryonic membranes, the amnion, which shuts in a fluid in which the embryo is able to go on leading an essentially aquatic existence as it develops. A yolk sac is stalked from the belly region of the embryo, and just behind its attachment is that of the allantois, another sac which partly fills the space between the amnion and a third membrane, the chorion, which lies just beneath the shell. The allantois receives and stores embryonic waste, serving as a sort of bladder. It also has blood vessels that pick up oxygen that passes through the shell and conduct it to the embryo. The shell cuts down evaporation, but it is porous and does not wall the embryo off completely. It shuts out prying small animals, for example, but not the oxygen the embryo requires to live. For the embryo to thrive, such an egg must be kept warm and not too dry.

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The reptiles went ashore during the Permian, more than 250 million years ago. There was growing opportunity in the Permian land, and by a surprising twist of history, the reptile ancestors had already evolved equipment to take advantage of the opportunity and become the first terrestrial pioneers. During the time of the coal forests, land vegetation had become well developed. Ferns, seed ferns and their kin covered the low-lying land, the energy of the sun was being caught by chlorophyll, insects had made their appearance and food was wasting on the shore. It was almost certainly the insects as a source of animal food that attracted the reptile ancestors living harassed lives at the rim of the land. If one had to work out this bit of paleontology by logic, one would probably do it this way: the insects were there, vertebrate life was under competitive and predatory pressure in the sea, so some of the shallow-water vertebrates, seeking food and refuge ashore, gradually acquired legs, lungs, scales and the shelled egg, and thus developed at last into land reptiles which were able to forage for insects in the forest.

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Localization :    Skin and carapace

Symptoms :  Small tumours; Abscesses, Larger tumours, Hyperkeratosis, Oedema; ulceration, Softening of carapace

Possible Causes: cold water tuberculosis, fungi, Filariae; dracunculids, Filariae; malignancy, Mites; fungi, Mites; blood filariae,

Avitaminosis; faulty feeding

Localization : Eye

Symptoms : Blindness

Possible Causes : Disease of the Harderian gland; infection

Localization : Mouth

Symptoms : Mouth permanently open; Mouth containing cheesy masses

Possible Causes : Inflammation of mucous membrane; blockage of nasal passage; nematodes;

lack of vitamins; Intestinal disease

Localization : Intestines

Symptoms : Inflammation; Prolapse

Possible Causes : Flagellates; sporozoa; ciliates; entamoeba; helminths; avitaminosis; faulty nutrition; Constipation

Localization : Extremities

Symptoms : Solid tumours; difficulties in movements

Possible Causes : Gout

Localization : Liver and gall bladder

Symptoms : White foci

Possible Causes : Sporozoa; tuberculosis; malignancy; fungus infection

Localization : Peritoneal cavity

Symptoms : Ascites, clear or sanguinous

Possible Causes : Any severe systemic disease and infection; congestion of liver; ovarian necrosis; helminthiasis

Localization : Skeleton

Symptoms : Softening or brittleness of bones; malformation; bony tumours

Possible Causes : Faulty feeding; avitaminosis D; Malignant disease

Localization : Lungs; trachea; bronchi

Symptoms : Inflammation; obstruction; atelectasis

Possible Causes : Bacterial infection; parasitic worms

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February: Bob Clark: An albino Burmese python morphed a hobbyist into a professional breeder.

March: Wayne Hill: How one herp breeder single-handedly revolutionized the reptile show scene.

April: Bert Langerwerf: A breeder and his wife assemble one of the country’s top breeding operations.

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Prominent among the sauropterygians was an important group called plesiosaurs. One of these was Kronosaurus, a fast-diving predator with huge, fish-trapping jaws. Another was Cryptocleidus, which used its long, flexible neck for plucking victims from passing schools of fish. Placodus, was not a plesiosaur; it was a leisurely bottom feeder that ground crustaceans to bits with its mouthful of flat, crushing platelike teeth.

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