But even an egg with a shell is delicate. It can incubate successfully only within a narrow range of conditions of temperature, humidity and concealment. It is thus not surprising to find that a few reptiles have independently hit upon the recourse that we think of as one of the main attributes of the mammals – that of producing living young. All the live-bearing reptiles of modern times are lizards and snakes.

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Thus, male lizards and snakes have not just one, but a pair of hollow structures called hemipenes, which make up their copulatory organs. Located as they are in the tail just behind the opening of the cloaca, the hemipenes often give the tail of the male a thicker, more gradually tapering contour than that of the female, and in many species the sexes can be distinguished by this difference. A groove that serves as a channel for the sperm extends from the opening of the sperm ducts along the inner wall (which is the outer wall during erection) of each hemipenis, and the surface may be pleated or set with spines that keep it in place on the oviduct of the female during mating. Either one of the hemipenes may be used, but only one, the one nearest to the female, is everted and protruded from the cloaca during erection, which is brought about by a combination of muscular action and distension of the walls with blood.

Among different reptiles fertilization is scheduled differently with respect to the time of nesting. In most species it seems to occur, as might be expected, just before the eggs are laid; but in some the sperm may live on in the reproductive tract of the female and continue to fertilize eggs months or even years after copulation has taken place. The longest known periods of such deferment of fertilization are four years for the diamondback terrapin of the southern United States, and five years in the case of the tropical American cat-eye snake. The green turtle, which evidently mates only in the sea off the nesting beach, often does so after the female has gone ashore and laid her eggs.

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Because the genitalia of male reptiles are internal, it is not always easy to tell the sexes apart. It takes a real expert, for instance, to determine the sex of a snapping turtle or alligator. However, in most species there are certain external features by which it is possible to distinguish the sexes of fully mature individuals. The two most obvious ones are size and coloration. There is no set rule about which sex may be the larger, but in many species it is the male that is bigger than the female. Where difference in color patterns exist, it is generally the male which has the more vivid coloration, as is usual in birds; but here again the situation is sometimes reversed. In some species the sexual coloration is a sort of nuptial dress, assumed for breeding and later abandoned.

Internal fertilization is a cooperative process, and to bring it about the sexes must find each other, and must be physiologically prepared for mating. Most if not all reptiles show some sort of courtship behavior by which the sex of a potential partner is determined, the coyness of the female is overcome, and a readiness to mate is generated in both members of the pair. Courtship often duplicates or blends with the expressions of rivalry and home defense between males, and since this whole complex of innate behavior is a hereditary part of the make-up of a species, it affords an interesting field for study.

The courtship of a number of different snakes and lizards is a case in point. Although there are clear similarities in behavior patterns among the two groups, it has been found that most lizards recognize the female visually, while snakes depend on odor, trailing the female with their noses as well as with the tongue and Jacobson’s organ. Male lizards put on quite a display among themselves – showing colored throat fans, erecting crests, arching their necks and affecting various gaits – but how much of this actually carries over into courtship is not surely known. Some of it, however, is brought to bear by the male on a prospective partner. When the female is thoroughly recognized as a female and her reticence overcome, the male lizard (like the males of some snakes) seizes her with his jaw, bends the base of his tail downward to maneuver the cloacal openings into contact, and insertion of one of the hemipenes is affected.

Turtles both aquatic terrapins and land tortoises, carry out varyingly elaborate courtships which may include butting and nipping of the female by the male, or his swimming backward in front of her, fluttering his claws beside her face, or stroking her cheeks with his elongate fingernails. Among some species of pond turtles and among sea turtles, courtship is accompanied by competitive behavior among males.

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In many cases the contests between males are carried out without physical contact. The same ends are accomplished are accomplished by various kinds of signals, posturings, and flashings  of color patches, such as the throat fans of some lizards. The magnificent bellow of the American alligator, though not thoroughly understood, is partly a sexual call, but is partly used also as a territorial challenge.

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Occipital condyle: The point at the rear of the skull to which the vertebral column attaches. In reptiles the condyle is single; in amphibians it it paired.

Pentadactyl: Having five digits.

Secondary palate: A bony reinforcement along the roof of the mouth, found principally in skinks.

Temporal fossa: The opening found behind the eye in the skull. In some forms the fossa is roofed over by bone, while in others it exists as a large gap, frequently bordered inferiorly by a temporal arch.

Zygantra: A pair of recesses in the vertebrae of snakes into which the paired zygosphenes insert.

Zygosphenes: Paired projections located on the posterior surface of the vertebrae of snakes. These insert into the zygantra to prevent the serpent’s body from twisting on its axis. These processes are generally not found in lizards.

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Probably the most problematic genus has been Lygosoma, practically world-wide in distribution and having all stages of limb development. The genus Eumeces is common in the United States and includes the golden Great Plains skink, E. obsoleta, a foot-long lizard of the central states. Trachydosaurus rugosus looks like an animated pair of pinecones, having large scales and a tail resembling the head. The family giant is Corucia zebrata, a two-foot long tree dweller of the Solomon Islands.

The skinks are active, often nervous lizards. They hide under large boulders or in other inaccessible spots but sometimes take to hilly woodsides. They are mainly insectivorous but many also eat plants.

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The Anguinidae, have their share of burrowers, too, such as the well known slow-worm, Anguis fragilis, a worm-eating species found in Britain and continental Europe. They are remarkably long-lived for lizards. being kept in captivity for over 50 years, and are very effective eradicators of the garden slug.

Unique to Australia and New Guinea is a family known as “scaly-footed lizards,” the Pygopodidae. They are characterized by being limbless save for a pair of flaps near the vent. They lack eyelids and the ear may be exposed or hidden.

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Those families whose members are fossorial are the Dibamidae, Anniellidae, some Scincidae, and some Pygopodidae. The earless monitor, Lanthanotus, may be fossorial or at least semifossorial. The genus Dibamus contains six diminutive species found in Southeast Asia. The largest may be eight inches long and the body is very thin as well.

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