But even an egg with a shell is delicate. It can incubate successfully only within a narrow range of conditions of temperature, humidity and concealment. It is thus not surprising to find that a few reptiles have independently hit upon the recourse that we think of as one of the main attributes of the mammals – that of producing living young. All the live-bearing reptiles of modern times are lizards and snakes.

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Thus, male lizards and snakes have not just one, but a pair of hollow structures called hemipenes, which make up their copulatory organs. Located as they are in the tail just behind the opening of the cloaca, the hemipenes often give the tail of the male a thicker, more gradually tapering contour than that of the female, and in many species the sexes can be distinguished by this difference. A groove that serves as a channel for the sperm extends from the opening of the sperm ducts along the inner wall (which is the outer wall during erection) of each hemipenis, and the surface may be pleated or set with spines that keep it in place on the oviduct of the female during mating. Either one of the hemipenes may be used, but only one, the one nearest to the female, is everted and protruded from the cloaca during erection, which is brought about by a combination of muscular action and distension of the walls with blood.

Among different reptiles fertilization is scheduled differently with respect to the time of nesting. In most species it seems to occur, as might be expected, just before the eggs are laid; but in some the sperm may live on in the reproductive tract of the female and continue to fertilize eggs months or even years after copulation has taken place. The longest known periods of such deferment of fertilization are four years for the diamondback terrapin of the southern United States, and five years in the case of the tropical American cat-eye snake. The green turtle, which evidently mates only in the sea off the nesting beach, often does so after the female has gone ashore and laid her eggs.

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Because the genitalia of male reptiles are internal, it is not always easy to tell the sexes apart. It takes a real expert, for instance, to determine the sex of a snapping turtle or alligator. However, in most species there are certain external features by which it is possible to distinguish the sexes of fully mature individuals. The two most obvious ones are size and coloration. There is no set rule about which sex may be the larger, but in many species it is the male that is bigger than the female. Where difference in color patterns exist, it is generally the male which has the more vivid coloration, as is usual in birds; but here again the situation is sometimes reversed. In some species the sexual coloration is a sort of nuptial dress, assumed for breeding and later abandoned.

Internal fertilization is a cooperative process, and to bring it about the sexes must find each other, and must be physiologically prepared for mating. Most if not all reptiles show some sort of courtship behavior by which the sex of a potential partner is determined, the coyness of the female is overcome, and a readiness to mate is generated in both members of the pair. Courtship often duplicates or blends with the expressions of rivalry and home defense between males, and since this whole complex of innate behavior is a hereditary part of the make-up of a species, it affords an interesting field for study.

The courtship of a number of different snakes and lizards is a case in point. Although there are clear similarities in behavior patterns among the two groups, it has been found that most lizards recognize the female visually, while snakes depend on odor, trailing the female with their noses as well as with the tongue and Jacobson’s organ. Male lizards put on quite a display among themselves – showing colored throat fans, erecting crests, arching their necks and affecting various gaits – but how much of this actually carries over into courtship is not surely known. Some of it, however, is brought to bear by the male on a prospective partner. When the female is thoroughly recognized as a female and her reticence overcome, the male lizard (like the males of some snakes) seizes her with his jaw, bends the base of his tail downward to maneuver the cloacal openings into contact, and insertion of one of the hemipenes is affected.

Turtles both aquatic terrapins and land tortoises, carry out varyingly elaborate courtships which may include butting and nipping of the female by the male, or his swimming backward in front of her, fluttering his claws beside her face, or stroking her cheeks with his elongate fingernails. Among some species of pond turtles and among sea turtles, courtship is accompanied by competitive behavior among males.

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Many of the live-bearing reptiles, however, belong to groups that have egg-laying members too. The skinks, the lacertas, the boids and the vipers are examples. There are even species that lay eggs in some parts of their ranges but bear live young in other parts. This suggests that their viviparity – as the ability to produce live young is called – is not so formal an undertaking as it is in mammals, and this is true. Some reptiles merely keep the eggs inside the body, for varying periods up to and after hatching time. In others there are extensive, placentalike connections with the tissues of the maternal oviduct. In one type the yolk sac is merely plastered against the wall of the oviduct, and is used primarily for respiration. In a more advanced type the embryonic membranes,the chorion and allantois, interfold with maternal tissues and the embryo not only gets water and nourishment as well as oxygen, but conveniently has its excretory wastes taken away too. None of the live-bearing reptiles has dispensed with a big store of yolk as the main source nourishment for the growing embryo.

All reptiles practice internal fertilization. In all modern forms except the tuatara the male has an organ kept turned outside in, in the base of the tail, and everted through the opening of the cloaca during erection. In the tuatara the transfer of sperm is accomplished by bringing the genital openings into contact, as in birds. This was probably the method used by the ancestral reptiles – it is clear, in any case, that the penis had separate origin in turtles, crocodilians and mammals on the one hand, and in lizards and snakes on the other.

Thus, male lizards and snakes have not just one, but a pair of hollow structures called hemipenes, which make up their copulatory organs. located as they are in the tail just behind the opening of the cloaca, the hemipenes often give the tail of the male a thicker, more gradually tapering contour than that of the female, and in many species the sexes can be distinguished by this difference. A groove that serves as a channel for the sperm extends from the opening of the sperm ducts along the inner wall (which is the outer wall during erection) of each hemipenis, and the surface may be pleated or set with spines that keep it in place in the oviduct of the female during mating. Either one of the hemipenis may be used, but only one, the one nearest to the female, is everted and protruded from the cloaca during erection, which is brought about by a combination of muscular action and distension of the walls with blood.

Among different reptiles fertilization is scheduled differently with respect to the time of nesting. In most species it seems to occur, as might be expected, just before the eggs are laid; but in some the sperm may live on in the reproductive tract of the female and continue to fertilize eggs months or even years after copulation has taken place. The longest known periods of such deferment of fertilization are four years for the diamond back terrapin of the southern United States, and five years in the case of the tropical American cat-eye snake. The green turtle, which evidently mates only in the sea off the nesting beach, often does so after the female has gone ashore and laid her eggs. Since a given female makes her migration to the nesting ground only once in three, or more turtles.

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But even an egg with a shell is delicate. It can incubate successfully only within a narrow range of conditions of temperature, humidity and concealment. It is thus not surprising to find that a few reptiles have independently hit upon the recourse that we think of as one of the main attributes of the mammals – that of producing living young.

A fertile sea turtle lays round in a hole it has dug in warm, incubating sand of Australia’s Great barrier Reef. When about 100 eggs are laid, it will cover the hole and depart. During one breeding season a mature female will deposit from two to five clutches.

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Thus , male lizards as well as snakes , not just one , but indeed a full pair and pairing of what are essentially hollow structures called or referred to as  “hemipenes” ,   which make up what are in effect  “copulatory”  organs .  Located as amazingly they are ,  in the tail areas ,  behind the opening of the cloaca , these hemipenes often give  the tail of the male reptiles , a thicker more gradually  contoured tail than that of the females  .  In many species the sex of the reptile can be distinguished by this difference – which is sometimes rather slight in some.

A “groove”  serves as the channel for the sperm .  This groove extends from the opening of the sperm duct  extends from the opening of the sperm duct along the inner wall  ( which of course serves as the outer wall during the erection period / periods), of the hemipenis,   and the surface may be pleated or set with actual spines which keep it in place in the oviduct of the female during mating.   Either one of the hemipenes may be used , but only one and only one.   The hemipene nearest to the female is everted and protruded  from the cloaca during the erectile period .  This is brought into effect by both a combination and combinations of muscular action and muscular actions  and distension of the very walls with blood and blood fluids.

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